O Level Chemistry & IP Chemistry Notes by 10 Year Series Author - Chemistry Specialist

O Level Chemistry Made Easy

O-Level Chemistry: Hydrogen-Oxygen Fuel Cell


Just read an article in The Straits Times local newspapers on Hydrogen-Oxygen Fuel Cell few days back and it gave me an idea to blog about it. Huge potential to be a Chemistry question in your upcoming GCE O-Level Pure Chemistry or IP Chemistry examinations.

Combustion of Fuels

First of all, let’s take a look at the primary source of energy which is fuels, which are substances that can burn easily in air to give out energy. The most common used fuels are fossil fuels (coal, petroleum and natural gas) which are formed from decayed plants and animals that lived millions of years ago. They are being covered more in the topic of Organic Chemistry. Other types of fuels being used are wood and hydrogen.

When fuels burn, combustion reaction between the fuel and oxygen in the air occurs. All combustion reactions are exothermic in nature and heat energy is given out to the surroundings.

Fuel Cells

Combustion reactions are only one way to extract useful energy from the fuels. Scientists have long ago explored ways to convert chemical energy of fuels directly to electrical energy (i.e. does not require combustion reaction).

This is known as a fuel cell which is a chemical cell in which reactants (usually a fuel and oxygen) are continuously supplied to produce electricity directly.

There are many types of fuel cell but the hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell is the best known example. It has been used as a source of electrical energy in space vehicles.

Hydrogen and oxygen gases are continuously pumped and supplied into the chemical cell.

At the positive electrode (known as the cathode), oxygen is reduced to form hydroxide ions.

O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e– → 4OH–(aq)

At the negative electrode (known as the anode), hydrogen is oxidised to form water.

2H2(g) + 4OH–(aq) → 4H2O(l) + 4e–

Combining the two half equations above shows that hydrogen and oxygen are converted into water. The reaction equation is the same as that for the combustion of hydrogen.

2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(l)

Fuel cells produce electricity indefinitely provided there is a continuous supply of fuel. This is unlike ordinary chemical cell (battery) which will be used up.

So what are the advantages of using hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell? Seems like hydrogen can be used as an alternative to fossil fuels which are rapidly declining because the demand for them has increases exponentially.

Advantages of using Hydrogen-Oxygen Fuel Cell:

  1. It does not cause pollution since only water is produced.
  2. Hydrogen is considered a renewable source of energy since it can be obtained from the electrolysis of water.
  3. Fuel cells have a higher efficiency than diesel or gas engines. Less energy is lost to surrounding as compared to combustion.

But, how come fuel cells are not commonly used? Is there any limitations in using hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells as a source of energy?

Disadvantages of using Hydrogen-Oxygen Fuel Cell:

  1. No cheap sources of hydrogen. Obtaining hydrogen from electrolysis is an expensive process. Currently, hydrogen is obtained from non-renewable energy sources such as cracking of petroleum.
  2. Hydrogen is extremely flammable and explosive. As such, special precautions must be considered when it comes to storage and transportation of hydrogen.
  3. Hydrogen is also very light (relative molecular mass of 2) and requires a larger storage volume as compared to other fuels. There is currently no effective way to store hydrogen.

Hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell has huge potential to be the main source of energy but at the moment, the technology is not well developed and the cost of using hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell is high. Main use is still in space vehicles. Developed countries are trying to implement hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells in vehicles. Singapore is one of them.

I hope you find the content easy for your understanding and if you have anything valuable to add, leave me a comment below.

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PS: For students based in Singapore taking the Pure Chemistry or IP Chemistry syllabus, do note that Fuel Cell is listed in the topic of Energy Changes and not the topic on Electrolysis. This applies to the Pure Chemistry textbooks titles by both Marshall Cavendish and Pearson publishers, which are approved by Ministry of Education (MOE).

PPS: Under related articles below, there are several blog post discussions and questions related to Energy Changes. You can also do a keyword search using the search box at the top right hand corner.

Tips for O-Level Pure Chemistry Paper 2 Written Exam 2018

WARNING: This is a very lengthy post which covers comprehensively the key concepts for students taking the 2018 O-Level Pure Chemistry (code: 6092) Paper 2 Structured & Free Response. The links in blue when clicked will show the relevant YouTube videos and will further reinforce your understanding.

For students based in Singapore, you would have taken the O-Level Pure Chemistry syllabus (code: 6092) Paper 3 Practical Exam on Wednesday 17th October 2018. Hope you benefitted from the Tips for O-Level Pure Chemistry Paper 3 Practical Exam 2018 blog post. Several readers told me that they were glad to have read my previous blogpost as I have reminded them on some of the key concepts which will be tested in practicals (and THEY CAME OUT!).

Most of my students in my Secondary 4 weekly tuition classes found the practical to be easy as the three questions asked were quite basic and straight forward.

  • Question 1 was on Metal Displacement Reaction and Energy Changes combined.
  • Question 2 was on Redox Titration (no indicator was required since one of the reactants, acidified KMnO4, will have a colour change from purple to colourless).
  • Question 3 was on Planning and students were asked how to find the percentage by mass of carbonate in cockle shells.

No matter how you have fared for the Practical Paper 3, you need to look forward to the other two papers which makes up the bulk of GCE O-Level Pure Chemistry syllabus. Paper 2 Structured & Free Response and Paper 1 MCQ have a combined 80% weightage. Scoring well in them will still give you a Distinction A-grade.

During the last few lessons in our Sec 4 Pure Chemistry and IP Chemistry tuition classes, I have shared with my students on a 15 pages checklist on the concepts which will be tested.

Today, I would like to share with you, my readers on some of the key concepts (summarised) you would be tested for your upcoming Paper 2 Structured & Free Response Exam on 30th October 2018.

Format of Paper 2 Structured & Free Response Exam:

First of all, we must know that Paper 2 is worth a total of 80 marks and this constitute 50% weightage of your overall Chemistry grade. The time allocated to finish this paper is 1 hour and 45 minutes.

According to Singapore Examinations & Assessment Board (SEAB), this paper consists of two sections.

Section A will carry 50 marks and consists of a variable number of compulsory structured questions.

Section B will carry 30 marks and consists of three questions:

  • The first two questions are compulsory questions, one of which will be a data-based question requiring candidates to interpret, evaluate or solve problems using a stem of information. This question will carry 8–12 marks.
  • The last question will be presented in an either/or form and will carry 10 marks.

A copy of the Periodic Table of Elements will be printed as part of this paper and students should make full use of it.

Key Concepts to be tested:

Listed by topics, students must know the following key concepts well before their Paper 2 Exam.

1) Experimental Techniques

  • suitable apparatus to measure time, temperature, mass and volume
  • suitable apparatus to collect gases and measure rates of reaction

2) Separation Techniques

  • separating techniques such as filtration, chromatography, simple distillation, fractional distillation, separating funnel, crystallisation, evaporation to dryness and sublimation.
  • interpret paper chromatograms including comparison with ‘known’ samples and the use of Rf values
  • use of locating agents in the chromatography of colourless compounds

3) Qualitative Analysis (QA)

  • identification of 8 cations
  • identification of 5 anions
  • identification of 6 gases

NOTE: We might be expecting some marks in Paper 2 this year for QA since it was only tested for 1 mark in Paper 3 Practical which is very unusual for a Chemistry Exam. Do remember the 3 tables of tests! Be prepared!

4) Kinetic Particle Theory

  • changes of states and the energy involved
  • evidence for the movement of particles in liquids and gases
  • explain everyday effects of diffusion in terms of particles
  • effect of molecular mass and temperature on the rate of diffusion

5) Atomic Structure

6) Chemical Bondings and Structural Properties

  • determine the chemical formula of ionic compounds
  • describe the formation of ionic bonds between metals and non-metals, e.g. NaCl; MgCl2
  • state that ionic materials contain a giant lattice in which the ions are held by electrostatic attraction, e.g. NaCl
  • relate the physical properties of ionic compounds to their giant crystal lattice structures
  • determine the chemical formula of covalent molecules
  • describe, using ‘dot-and-cross’ diagrams, the formation of covalent bonds between non-metallic elements, e.g. H2; O2; H2O; CH4; CO2
  • relate the physical properties of covalent substances to their structure and bonding
  • compare the structure of simple molecular substances, e.g. methane; iodine, with those of giant molecular substances, e.g. poly(ethene); sand (silicon dioxide); diamond; graphite in order to deduce their properties
  • compare the bonding and structures of diamond and graphite in order to deduce their properties such as electrical conductivity, lubricating or strength
  • describe metals as a lattice of positive ions in a ‘sea of electrons’
  • relate the electrical conductivity of metals to the presence of mobile electrons in their structures

You may also find my YouTube video on Chemical Bonding Overview useful towards your final revision.

7) Mole Concepts and Chemical Calculations

  • construct chemical equations, with state symbols, including ionic equation
  • define relative atomic mass, Ar
  • define relative molecular mass, Mr
  • calculate relative molecular mass (and relative formula mass) as the sum of relative atomic masses
  • calculate percentage mass of an element in a compound
  • calculate empirical and molecular formulae
  • calculate stoichiometric reacting masses and volumes of gases
  • calculations regarding limiting and excess reactants
  • apply the concept of solution concentration (in mol/dm3 or g/dm3) to process the results of volumetric experiments
  • calculate % yield and % purity

For those who are not strong in writing ionic equations yet, fret not because it is actually very easy to do so. You just have to follow a series of standard steps (at least that’s how all my students learned effectively from me) and you will ALWAYS get the answer. You can watch my YouTube videos on Writing Ionic Equations Part 1 and  Writing Ionic Equations Part 2 to master it.

I also have 2 YouTube videos on solving Mole Calculations Part 1 and Mole Calculations Part 2. You can also do a search in this blog for all the relevant Mole Calculations discussion of exam-based questions.

8) Electrolysis

(i) cations: linked to the metals reactivity series
(ii) anions: halides, hydroxides and sulfates e.g. aqueous copper(II) sulfate, dilute sodium chloride solution, etc
(iii) concentration effects (as in the electrolysis of concentrated and dilute aqueous sodium chloride)

  • predict the likely products of the electrolysis of a molten binary compound as well as aqueous solution
  • construct ionic equations for the reactions occurring at the electrodes during the electrolysis
  • describe the electrolysis of aqueous solution which involves the use of reactive electrodes
  • describe the electrolysis of aqueous copper(II) sulfate with copper electrodes as a means of purifying copper
  • describe the electroplating of metals, e.g. copper plating, and state one use of electroplating
  • describe the production of electrical energy from simple cells (i.e. two difference metal electrodes in an electrolyte) linked to the reactivity series and redox reactions (in terms of electron transfer)

9) Energy Changes

  • describe the meaning of enthalpy change in terms of exothermic (negative enthalpy change) and endothermic (positive enthalpy change) reactions
  • represent energy changes by energy level diagrams, including reaction enthalpy changes
  • represent energy changes by energy profile diagrams, including reaction enthalpy changes and activation energies
  • describe bond breaking as an endothermic process and bond making as an exothermic process
  • explain overall enthalpy changes in terms of the energy changes associated with the breaking and making of covalent bonds
  • describe hydrogen, derived from electrolysis of water or cracking of hydrocarbons, as a potential fuel, reacting with oxygen to generate electricity directly in a fuel cell (note that details of the construction and operation of a fuel cell are not required)
  • state the advantages and and disadvantages of hydrogen as an alternative fuel

10) Rate of Reactions

You may find my YouTube video on the 5 Factors that affects the Rate of Reaction useful towards your final revision.

11) Redox Reactions

12) Acids & Bases

  • define acid and alkali in terms of the ions they produce in aqueous solution and their effects on Universal Indicator
  • how to test hydrogen ion concentration and hence relative acidity using Universal Indicator and the pH scale
  • difference between strong and weak acids in terms of the extent of ionisation or dissociaton i.e. strength of acids and alkalis
  • basicity of acids
  • chemical properties of acids as in reactions with metals, bases and carbonates
  • uses of sulfuric acid in the manufacture of detergents and fertilisers, and as a battery acid
  • ionic equation for acid-alkali neutralisation is H+(aq) + OH–(aq) → H2O(l)
  • importance of controlling the pH in soils and how excess acidity can be treated using calcium hydroxide
  • chemical properties of bases in reactions with acids and with ammonium salts
  • classify oxides as acidic, basic, amphoteric or neutral based on metallic/non-metallic character as well as state their chemical properties

You may find my YouTube video on Strength versus Basicity of Acids useful towards your final revision. Cambridge examiners love to test students on their concepts.

13) Salts

  • solubility for common salts such as nitrates, chlorides (including silver and lead), sulfates (including barium, calcium and lead), carbonates, hydroxides, salts of Group I cations and ammonium salts
  • 3 methods to prepare salts are (a) Titration (b) Ionic Precipitation (c) Acid + Excess Insoluble Substances
  • describe the techniques used in the preparation, separation and purification of salts

14) Ammonia

  • use of nitrogen (from air) and hydrogen (from the cracking of crude oil) in the manufacture of ammonia
  • essential conditions for the manufacture of ammonia by the Haber process
  • displacement of ammonia from ammonium salts with the use of strong alkalis

15) Periodic Table and Group Trends

  • describe the Periodic Table as an arrangement of the elements in the order of increasing proton (atomic) number
  • relationship between group number and the ionic charge of an ion of an element
  • similarities between the elements in the same group of the Periodic Table in terms of their electronic structure
  • change from metallic to non-metallic character from left to right across a period of the Period Table
  • relationship between group number, number of valency electrons and metallic/non-metallic character
  • Group I alkali metals are relatively soft, low density metals showing a trend in melting point and in their reaction with water
  • Group VII halogens are diatomic, non-metals showing a trend in colour, state and their displacement reactions with solutions of other halide ions
  • Group 0 noble gases are monatomic elements that are chemically unreactive (full electronic configuration) and hence important in providing an inert atmosphere industrially, e.g. argon and neon in light bulbs; helium in balloons; argon in the manufacture of steel
  • transition elements are metals having high melting point, high density, variable oxidation state and forms coloured compounds
  • transition elements and/or their compounds are often able to act as catalysts

16) Metals

  • metals have high melting and boiling points, malleable, good conductors of heat and electricity
  • alloys is a mixture of a metal with another element, e.g. brass; stainless steel
  • explain why alloys have different physical properties to their constituent elements (metals)
  • metals reactivity series in terms of decreasing reactivity: potassium > sodium > calcium > magnesium > aluminium > zinc > iron > tin > lead > (hydrogen) > copper > silver > gold
  • understand the reactions, if any, of the metals with water, steam and dilute hydrochloric acid
  • understand the reduction, if any, of their oxides by carbon and/or by hydrogen
  • metal displacement reactions in terms of a more reactive metal to displace a less reactive metal in aqueous solution
  • metal displacement reactions in terms of a more reactive metal to displace a less reactive metal in a metal oxide
  • action of heat on the carbonates of the listed metals and relate thermal stability to the reactivity series
  • ease of extracting metals from their ores by relating the elements to their positions in the reactivity series
  • describe metal ores as a finite resource and hence the need to recycle metals, e.g. recycling of iron
  • discuss the social, economic and environmental issues of recycling metals
  • essential reactions in the extraction of iron using haematite, limestone and coke in the blast furnace
  • describe steels as alloys which are a mixture of iron with carbon or other metals and how controlled use of these additives changes the properties of the iron, e.g. high carbon steels are strong but brittle whereas low carbon steels are softer and more easily shaped
  • uses of mild steel, e.g. car bodies; machinery
  • uses of stainless steel, e.g. chemical plants; cutlery; surgical instruments
  • essential conditions for the corrosion (rusting) of iron are presence of oxygen and water
  • prevent rusting by barrier protection e.g. painting, greasing, plastic coating, galvanising
  • prevent rusting by sacrificial protection e.g. underground water pipes have a piece of magnesium attached to them

17) Air & Atmosphere

  • volume composition of gases present in dry air is approximately 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen and the remainder being noble gases (with argon as the main constituent) and carbon dioxide
  • name some common atmospheric pollutants, e.g. carbon monoxide; methane; nitrogen oxides (NO and NO2); ozone; sulfur dioxide; unburned hydrocarbons
  • state the sources and adverse effects of these pollutants, as well as how to reduce or prevent them
  • redox reactions in catalytic converters to remove combustion pollutants
  • use of calcium carbonate to reduce the effect of ‘acid rain’ and in flue gas desulfurisation
  • importance of the ozone layer and the problems involved with the depletion of ozone by reaction with chlorine-containing compounds, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
  • describe the carbon cycle in simple terms, to include (a) the processes of combustion, respiration and photosynthesis
    (b) how the carbon cycle regulates the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere

18) Organic Chemistry

  • natural gas (mainly methane) and petroleum as sources of energy
  • petroleum aka crude oil is a mixture of hydrocarbons and its separation into useful fractions by fractional distillation
  • name the seven fractions in the order of increasing boiling points (petroleum gas, petrol aka gasoline, naphtha, kerosene aka paraffin, diesel oil, lubricating oil, bitumens) and state their uses
  • describe the issues relating to the competing uses of oil as an energy source and as a chemical feedstock
  • homologous series refers to a group of compounds with a general formula, similar chemical properties and showing a gradation in physical properties as a result of increase in the size and mass of the molecules, e.g. melting and boiling points; viscosity; flammability
  • alkanes refers to the homologous series of saturated hydrocarbons with the general formula CnH2n+2
  • draw the structures of branched and unbranched alkanes, C1 to C4, and name the unbranched alkanes methane to butane
  • define isomerism and identify isomers
  • alkanes (exemplified by methane) are generally unreactive but does undergo combustion and substitution reaction by chlorine or bromine in the presence of UV light
  • alkenes refers to the homologous series of unsaturated hydrocarbons with the general formula CnH2n
  • draw the structures of branched and unbranched alkenes, C2 to C4, and name the unbranched alkenes ethene to butene
  • manufacture of short chain alkenes, short chain alkanes and hydrogen by cracking hydrocarbons
  • cracking is essential to match the demand for fractions containing smaller molecules from the refinery process
  • difference between saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons in terms of their molecular structures
  • test for unsaturation using aqueous bromine
  • alkenes (exemplified by ethene) undergo combustion, addition polymerisation and the addition reactions with bromine, steam and hydrogen
  • meaning of polyunsaturated when applied to food products
  • manufacture of margarine by the addition of hydrogen to unsaturated vegetable oils to form a solid product
  • alcohols refers to the homologous series containing the –OH group with the general formula of CnH2n+1OH
  • draw the structures of alcohols, C1 to C4, and name the unbranched alcohols, methanol to butanol
  • alcohols undergo combustion and oxidation reaction (to form respective carboxylic acids)
  • formation of ethanol by (a) the catalysed addition of steam to ethene known as hydration, and (b) by fermentation of glucose
  • uses of ethanol such as: as a solvent, as a fuel and as a constituent of alcoholic beverages
  • carboxylic acids refers to the homologous series containing the –CO2H group with the general formula of CnH2n+1COOH
  • draw the structures of C1 to C4 carboxylic acids, methanoic acid to butanoic acid, and name them
  • carboxylic acids are weak acids, reacting with carbonates, bases and some metals
  • formation of ethanoic acid by (a) the oxidation of ethanol by atmospheric oxygen or (b) acidified potassium manganate(VII)
  • describe the reaction of a carboxylic acid with an alcohol to form an ester
  • commercial uses of esters such as perfumes, flavourings and as solvents
  • macromolecules are large molecules (also known as polymers) built up from small units known as monomers
  • addition polymer such as poly(ethene) and poly(propene), from their monomers ethene and propene respectively
  • uses of poly(ethene) as typical plastic such as plastic bags, clingfilm and water pipes
  • condensation polymers such as nylon (a polyamide) and Terylene (a polyester)
  • typical uses of man-made fibres such as nylon and Terylene are clothing, curtain materials, fishing line, parachutes and sleeping bags
  • pollution problems caused by the disposal of non-biodegradable plastics e.g. land and air pollution

It is important that students go through all the bullet points stated above (as well as ALL my related YouTube videos) and make sure that they know the Chemistry concepts involved. Do take note of all the necessary keywords and chemical equations too.

Feel free to share this blog post with all your friends who are taking Chemistry.

I would like to sign off by wishing everyone (my own students as well as those i have not met before) the best in their O-Level Pure Chemistry Paper 2!

PS: A quick note that we will be conducting our Score 100% O-Level Pure Chemistry MCQ Workshop on 10th November 2018 to help students to score full marks for their Paper 1 (MCQ Paper) with 30% weightage. We have consistently received positive feedbacks and glowing reviews for this annual workshop and this will be the 10th consecutive year that we are conducting it. Join us if you are committed to UP your overall Chemistry grade.

“This programme tells me the topics that I am weak in and it emphasises the importance of getting full marks for Chemistry MCQ. I have learnt to manage my time wisely, which is crucial in doing Paper 1 as I usually could not finish the paper. I learnt more about the strategies of doing MCQ and revise on key concepts. I hope I am able to get full marks and I will recommend this to anyone taking O-Levels.” 
Cher Yi Jia, Nan Hua High School

To Your Chemistry Success,

Sean Chua